Fair warning: the next several pages in Spinoza are among the most difficult in the book and are likely responsible for many people stopping and not going any further. But we’re fearless, right?
I promise to make this as painless as I can, and maybe even cool. Onwards.
What Spinoza aims to do over the next “axioms” and “propositions” is to clarify, logically, what the nature of Reality and its attributes is, or in other words, what the ultimate nature of God is.
Unlike Joan Osborne above, Spinoza is in dialogue here with Aristotle, Descartes, and medieval scholastic philosophy, and much of it is not that helpful for the beginning reader of Spinoza today.
Those who become smitten with Spinoza may revisit it to clarify the fine details of what he is saying, but as usual I will pass over much of it and limit myself to summarizing the key points.
Axioms 1–7
In the seven axioms here Spinoza sets out a series of things he will later be taking for granted. The first two state logical claims: first, that all things are either in themselves or in another thing; and second, that something which doesn’t need another thing to be understood can be understood through itself.
Spinoza will use these as a basis for asserting that all the normal finite things we perceive through our senses and minds on the average day (“modes”) exist in another thing (God/Reality) and that this Reality, the Reality, does not require anything other than itself to be understood. This is unlike modes, which do.
For example, as we touched on briefly already, a table cannot be understood through itself but is understood through other things- light, touch, colour, time, space, causality (the effects of a table on other things). Yet Reality is understood through….. itself. Fullstop.
Spinoza then argues that everything requires a cause and that cognition of something involves cognizing its cause. What Spinoza means here is that when you cognize something you are aware of its immanent cause, or what it is made of. It doesn’t mean you haven’t seen a fire unless you know Billy lit it (shame, Billy!).
It means seeing a fire involves seeing wood, air, combustion, and flame and Spinozistically speaking it means experiencing Reality. Reality is the immanent cause of Fire.
Another key point at this stage that Spinoza makes is that anything you can imagine possibly not existing does not exist necessarily (it is not its nature, or essence, to exist). As we shall see, this means that all particular things do not exist necessarily- but can we imagine Reality not existing?
Au contraire, says Spinoza, we cannot.
I think he is right.
Basically, then, Spinoza is saying:
that all things exist in Reality, which exists in itself.
that Reality can be known through itself but individual things can’t;
that knowing any particular thing involves knowing its cause (Reality); and
that whereas any given thing can be imagined as non-existent, Reality itself cannot be imagined as non-existent.
Propositions 1–11
Spinoza goes on to argue in these propositions that things rely on what they are made of (“a substance is logically prior to its affections”). He then argues that there can only be one Reality, since having more than one Reality is logically impossible. What would these two realities be made of? Reality, of course. All is One.
Spinoza shows that it belongs to the very nature of Reality to exist and also that Reality must be unlimited (since if Reality depended on something else to exist it would not be Reality, and if it was limited by something else….. hopefully you’re following this now).
Spinoza then argues that “the more reality or being a thing has” the more attributes, or “qualities” it has. In other words, what does it mean to say that something has more being than another thing? It means that it has more qualities. Since Reality has unlimited being, it must have unlimited qualities.
The only limit to the number of qualities Reality has its own nature.
Spinoza next shows that each attribute must be conceived through itself, something we’ve already touched on, and that God, who is “a Reality consisting of infinite qualities, each one of which expresses its own eternal [logically necessary] and unlimited nature, necessarily exists.”
What Spinoza is saying here is that there must be a being consisting of logically unlimited qualities, each of which expresses what follows logically from its own being. As beautiful as this conception is, in a way it is quite ordinary: what it comes down to is that Reality necessarily is and sets its own rules for what qualities it has, and that the unfolding of these qualities follows from the nature of reality itself.
The implications of what he argues here, however, are profound, and for traditional Theists and Metaphysicians profoundly disturbing.
Spinoza’s logic suggests that there can only be one reality, and that if God exists God must either be that reality (and so, God) or a product of that Reality (and so not God). If God is that reality, than God doesn’t aim at anything outside Godself (there is nothing outside of Godself) and did not exist before the universe in order to create it (what would inspire a change in God when there is nothing outside of God to inspire it?)
What Spinoza aims to prove in this rather abstract opening volley of propositions is that there is only one Reality which all things are expressions of, and which necessarily exists and creates itself according to its own rules, simply as an expression of its own nature.
There is no ultimate overlord like a human being sculpting clay according to her design, choosing how the universe is. Nor is reality emanated from a separate metaphysical ground of some kind. Reality, which is God, unfolds out of itself.
Further, it is impossible to explain why Reality exists or why it is the way it is, since by definition Reality must be and must unfold according to its own nature.
So basically Ms. Lauryn Hill comes out as the Spinozist here, with apologies to Joan Osborne above.
Spinoza, Polytheism, Animism and Panpsychism
What Spinoza is arguing here—and again, for the fine details you’ll have to read the book itself or a good line by line commentary on it— is totally destructive of traditional, exoteric and anthropomorphic monotheism.
What about polytheism, though?
Now Spinoza himself was certainly an early modern rationalist who did not believe in gods or spirits.
That said, there is nothing in his system itself that precludes polytheism or animism, and Spinoza’s view of the universe, as we shall see, is panpsychic. He believed that everything that exists is inherently conscious, if on a very primitive level, and this is arguably a sibling to animism.
The similarity that panpsychism has to animism may be one of the reasons panpsychism drives so many scientific materialists apeshit despite the fact that it presents a simple, economical and logical view of the universe which “saves the appearances” i.e. meshes with the way we experience the world1.
If there are gods, though, even gods who design an aspect of the universe or gods with massive power in certain realms of being (it is a little known fact that the Buddha asserted that both of these types of gods exist), these gods would arise from Spinoza’s God, and be determined by it. The nature of these gods/spirits would be determined by the inherent qualities of Reality and its expression as them, just like we are. This is, of course, a view closely akin to that held by ancient Pagan theologians like the Stoics and others2.
If one of these gods were to come to the conclusion that they were the Lord and Creator of all that exists, by the way, they would simply be deluded. If you’re wondering why I’m mentioning this strange view, it’s because I just remembered that early Buddhists in fact wrote a mythological satire about just this possibility, where Mahabrahma (“the Great God”) falsely believes that he knows and does all, when in fact he’s just a very powerful being in another realm who is born and dies like other beings. He is shown up by an astral travelling Buddhist monk who asks him questions he can’t answer3.
In any case, the question of gods, spirits, other realms, etc. is a not a philosophical, but a scientific question. Whatever the nature of Reality is, according to Spinoza it unfolds according to its own nature and according to no one’s plan, and all beings are expressions of it.
Tune into the same Spinoza channel for another essay soon!
For one version of Panpsychic thought see here:
See “The Shape of Ancient Thought” by Thomas McEvilley.
Alright, alright, here is the story:
Once upon a time, Kevaḍḍha, a mendicant in this very Saṅgha had the following thought, ‘Where do these four primary elements cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’
Then that mendicant attained a state of immersion such that a path to the gods appeared. . | Then he approached the gods of the Four Great Kings and said, ‘Reverends, where do these four primary elements cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’
When he said this, those gods said to him, ‘Mendicant, we too do not know this. But the Four Great Kings are our superiors. These are powerful spirits who guard the four quarters. They might know.’
Then he approached the Four Great Kings and asked the same question. But they also said to him, ‘Mendicant, we too do not know this. But the gods of the Thirty-Three….Sakka, lord of gods … the gods of Yama … .the god named Suyāma … the Joyful gods … the god named Santussita … the gods who delight in creation … the god named Sunimmita … the gods who control the creation of others … the god named Vasavattī … the gods of Brahmā’s Host are our superiors. They might know.’
Then that mendicant attained a state of immersion such that a path to Brahmā appeared. Then he approached the gods of Brahmā’s Host and said, ‘Reverends, where do these four primary elements cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’
But they also said to him, ‘Mendicant, we too do not know this. But there is Brahmā, the Great Brahmā, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. He is our superior. He might know.’
‘But reverends, where is that Brahmā now?’
‘We also don’t know where he is or what way he lies. But by the signs that are seen—light arising and radiance appearing—we know that Brahmā will appear. For this is the precursor for the appearance of Brahmā, namely light arising and radiance appearing.’ Not long afterwards, the Great Brahmā appeared.
Then that mendicant approached the Great Brahmā and said to him, ‘Reverend, where do these four primary elements cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’
The Great Brahmā said to him, ‘I am Brahmā, the Great Brahmā, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born.’
For a second time, that mendicant said to the Great Brahmā, ‘Reverend, I am not asking you whether you are Brahmā, the Great Brahmā, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. I am asking where these four primary elements cease without anything left over.’
For a second time, the Great Brahmā said to him, ‘I am Brahmā, the Great Brahmā, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born.’ .‘Reverend, I am not asking you whether you are Brahmā, the Great Brahmā, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. I am asking where these four primary elements cease without anything left over.’
Then the Great Brahmā took that mendicant by the arm, led him off to one side, and said to him, ‘Mendicant, these gods think that there is nothing at all that I don’t know and see and understand and realize. That’s why I didn’t answer in front of them. But I too do not know where these four primary elements cease with nothing left over. Therefore, mendicant, the misdeed is yours alone, the mistake is yours alone, in that you passed over the Buddha and searched elsewhere for an answer to this question. Mendicant, go to the Buddha and ask him this question. You should remember it in line with his answer.’
Then that mendicant, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, vanished from the Brahmā realm and reappeared in front of me [the Buddha]. Then he bowed, sat down to one side, and said to me, ‘Sir, where do these four primary elements cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’
Best footnote in recorded history;)